Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, sponsored by U.S. Department of Energy (record hosted by DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information, OSTI) · 18 June 2026 (Technical Report date on OSTI record) · Report
This is the newest edition of the congressionally requested national estimate of data center electricity use. The OSTI abstract says it updates the 2024 report, extends the projection horizon to 2030, and gives a central estimate plus a scenario range. The record lists LBNL authors (Smith, Hubbard, Newkirk, Ganeshalingam, Holecek, Sartor, Mills, Shehabi), report number LBNL-2001758 and DOI 10.71468/P1RP4F. DOE's data center hub adds that the update uses new sensitivity scenarios and a model built on projected shipments of data center equipment.
“This report updates the 2024 Data Center Energy Usage Report (2024 Report) and estimates that data centers could account for 11.8% of total U.S. electricity by 2030.”
“The estimate also includes a range of scenarios that indicate the energy use could be between 9.5 and 15.3% of total U.S. electricity use by 2030.”
“In comparison, the 2024 Report estimate range was 6.7% to 12.0% of total U.S. electricity by 2028.”
Who should read it:
Planning staff, council and commission members, economic development staff, utility regulators, anyone citing a national data center electricity number
Limitations:
DOE's hub page describing this update states: "The estimates are based on an energy-use modeling framework based on projected shipments of data center equipment, and do not directly address potential growth in grid or on-site energy supply."
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, sponsored by U.S. Department of Energy (record hosted by DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information, OSTI). “United States Data Center Energy Usage Report: 2025 Update.” 18 June 2026 (Technical Report date on OSTI record). https://www.osti.gov/biblio/3374245
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Technologies Area), for the U.S. Department of Energy · 12/19/2024 (Date Published on LBNL page) · Report
The LBNL publication page says the report meets the Energy Act of 2020 request that DOE update LBNL's 2016 national data center energy study. It estimates historical U.S. data center electricity use back to 2014 from prior studies and equipment shipment data, and gives a scenario range of demand to 2028. Authors include Arman Shehabi, Sarah Josephine Smith, Jonathan Koomey, Eric Masanet and Dale Sartor; DOI 10.71468/P1WC7Q. The Berkeley Lab News Center summary (Jan.
“Data centers consumed about 4.4% of total U.S. electricity in 2023 and, depending upon how much the rest of the economy grows, are expected to consume between 6.7 and 12% of total U.S. electricity by 2028.”
“The total data center electricity usage climbed from 58 TWh in 2014 to 176 TWh in 2023 and is estimated to increase between 325 to 580 TWh by 2028.”
“Between 2017 and 2023, data-center power demand more than doubled, largely due to the growth in AI servers.”
“This report also provides a scenario range of future demand out to 2028 based on new trends and the most recent available data.”
Who should read it:
Planning staff, council members, utility regulators, economic development staff
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Technologies Area), for the U.S. Department of Energy. “2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report.” 12/19/2024 (Date Published on LBNL page). https://eta.lbl.gov/publications/2024-lbnl-data-center-energy-usage-report
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory · undated · Web page
LBNL's DOE-funded data center energy center. It links the national energy usage reports, a Data Center Energy Toolkit, and research areas: power and cooling, grid planning and procurement, load flexibility and grid integration, U.S. energy and water modeling, facility performance modeling, and hardware benchmarking. It also features the 'Speed to Power' large-load report and a 2026 National Academy of Engineering BRIDGE issue on AI data centers.
“We partner with industry and electric utilities to accelerate AI infrastructure and drive innovative energy systems in data centers.”
“Our comprehensive toolkit can be used sequentially to move from a basic understanding of how energy is used in data centers to identifying opportunities and implementing best practices.”
Who should read it:
Sustainability and planning staff, municipal utility engineers
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. “Center of Expertise for Data Center Energy.” undated. https://datacenters.lbl.gov/
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Analysis Division, Energy Markets and Planning) · 06/2026 · Report
Authors Fredrich Kahrl and Natalie Mims Frick review documents and literature to catalog solutions for large-load connection bottlenecks. The solutions are grouped into five functional areas: load forecasting, interconnection, resource planning and procurement, markets and operations, and cost allocation and ratemaking. It gives local and state officials a framework for the options utilities and regulators are using.
“Rapid growth in demand from data centers and other large loads is creating a range of new challenges for electricity planners, investors, system operators, and regulators, leading to bottlenecks that have slowed connection of large loads to the electric grid.”
“Drawing on an extensive document and literature review, this report identifies more than 40 potential solutions for accelerating large load connections, organized into five functional areas: load forecasting, interconnection, resource planning and procurement, markets and operations, and cost allocation and ratemaking.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, municipal utilities, council members negotiating with utilities
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Analysis Division, Energy Markets and Planning). “Speed to Power: Solutions for Accelerating Large Load Connections.” 06/2026. https://eta.lbl.gov/publications/speed-power-solutions-accelerating
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Analysis Division) · 2026 (Year of Publication; webinar recorded September 2, 2026) · Report
Authors Natalie Mims Frick, Peter Cappers, Goksin Kavlak, Long Lam, Ryan Hledik, Jadon Grove and Sebastian Rotella review how utilities and regulators use large-load tariffs, rate structures and electric service agreements to manage data center risks. It updates similar January 2025 work and includes a spreadsheet appendix. This is the most direct federal-lab resource on protecting other ratepayers.
“While these large loads play an important role in advancing technology innovation and economic growth in the United States, meeting their energy needs requires utilities and regulators to consider important operational and financial risks, such as insufficient energy supply or underutilized investments, that can impact all customers.”
“This paper builds on similar research published in January 2025, providing an overview of how utilities and regulators are managing these risks through different tariffs, including rate structures and electric service agreements.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, municipal utility boards, council members, consumer advocates
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Analysis Division). “Electricity Rate Designs for Large Loads: Evolving Practices and Opportunities 2026 Update.” 2026 (Year of Publication; webinar recorded September 2, 2026). https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/publications/electricity-rate-designs-large-0
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Analysis Division) · 2026, updated monthly (September 2026 update) · Report
A monthly-updated bibliography by Natalie Mims Frick and Vinita Srinivasan. It organizes 2026 publications on large loads into 12 themes: utility models and markets, interconnection, tariffs, demand flexibility, load forecasting, data center siting and infrastructure, reliability, policy options, generation, design and operations, rate impacts of data centers, and transmission and distribution. A companion Large Load Data Sources file is included.
“The Large Load Literature Review and Data Sources reports are updated monthly, summarizing reports and data published in 2026 that focus on large loads.”
“The September update catalogs 41 publications focused on large loads, and groups the documents and resources thematically into 12 categories (listed below).”
Who should read it:
Staff researchers building their own reading lists; library maintainers
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Energy Analysis Division). “2026 Large Load Literature Review and Data Sources.” 2026, updated monthly (September 2026 update). https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/publications/2026-large-load-literature-review
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory authors (Nuoa Lei, Jun Lu, Arman Shehabi, Eric R. Masanet); journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling (Elsevier) · 2025 (Volume 219, article 108310) · Journal article
Analyzes what drives water use per unit of computing work in data centers. The authors rank the factors: server efficiency, grid water consumption factors, server utilization, cooling system type, infrastructure efficiency, climate zone, inactive servers, and server refresh cycle. It shows why a single gallons-per-day figure for 'a data center' can mislead.
“Our findings reveal workload-level water use variations exceeding 10,000-fold, driven by over 1000-fold differences in water consumption per kilowatt hour of server electricity consumed and approximately 10-fold differences in server workload efficiency.”
“Notably, there is no single recipe for minimizing water use; instead, optimal outcomes depend on tailored combinations of these factors.”
Who should read it:
Water utility staff, planning staff reviewing water service requests, sustainability staff
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory authors (Nuoa Lei, Jun Lu, Arman Shehabi, Eric R. Masanet); journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling (Elsevier). “The water use of data center workloads: A review and assessment of key determinants.” 2025 (Volume 219, article 108310). https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/publications/water-use-data-center-workloads
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for U.S. Department of Energy · 2025 (workshop held November 1, 2024) · Report
Summarizes a DOE workshop at LBNL on data center energy demand and grid impacts. Participants from industry and regulators discussed demand flexibility options such as load shifting and on-site energy, and the barriers to them. It explains what 'flexible' data center commitments mean in practice.
“Forty-nine participants, including industry and regulatory experts, explored demand flexibility strategies like load shifting and on-site energy solutions.”
“While opportunities exist, barriers such as regulatory complexity and high costs remain.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, municipal utilities, officials evaluating 'flexible load' claims
Cite as:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for U.S. Department of Energy. “DOE Data Center Load Flexibility Workshop Summary.” 2025 (workshop held November 1, 2024). https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/publications/doe-data-center-load-flexibility
National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR, formerly the National Renewable Energy Laboratory) · Last Updated Feb. 27, 2026 · Web page
Describes NLR's program covering data center siting, design, power, cooling, local support and efficient operation, from chips to transmission and generation. It names the challenges data centers pose to local grids, and strategies such as predictive AI load models, workload scheduling and demand response. It links to DOE's FEMP best practices guide and NLR's ARIES test platform.
“The geographic distribution of data centers creates localized grid stress, and their high power densities necessitate significant cooling.”
“Additionally, the lack of data transparency and difficulties in load forecasting present challenges to energy infrastructure.”
Who should read it:
Municipal utilities, sustainability staff
Cite as:
National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR, formerly the National Renewable Energy Laboratory). “Chip-to-Grid Data Center Initiative.” Last Updated Feb. 27, 2026. https://www.nlr.gov/computational-science/chip-to-grid-data-center-initiative
National Laboratory of the Rockies (Billy Roberts, Strategic Energy Analysis Center) · 2025 (map as of November 2025; NLR Publication NREL/OT-6A20-98020) · Map
A national lab map showing where data centers sit relative to transmission lines, fiber optic networks and metro areas. Local officials can use it to see how their jurisdiction relates to the infrastructure developers look for.
“This map illustrates the geospatial relationships between data center locations, transmission infrastructure, fiber optic networks, and metropolitan areas as of November 2025.”
Who should read it:
Planning and GIS staff, economic development staff
Cite as:
National Laboratory of the Rockies (Billy Roberts, Strategic Energy Analysis Center). “Data Center Infrastructure in the United States, November 2025.” 2025 (map as of November 2025; NLR Publication NREL/OT-6A20-98020). https://research-hub.nlr.gov/en/publications/data-center-infrastructure-in-the-united-states-november-2025/
National Laboratory of the Rockies (Ellie Estreich, Luke Lavin, Ilya Chernyakhovskiy; Grid Planning and Analysis Center) · 2026 (NLR/PR-6A40-97168) · Presentation
A 41-page NLR slide deck reviewing literature on ways to integrate large loads quickly. It lays out options for data and modeling projects that would support a planned siting and decision-making tool for data centers.
“Power system planners, utilities, regulators, and other stakeholders are grappling with how to integrate data centers on the system without comprising reliability, resiliency, and energy affordability.”
“This slide deck supports the same workstream by reviewing the literature to identify mitigation options to facilitate near-term integration of large loads and by presenting options for pursuing data development and/or modeling projects to improve representation of siting options.”
Who should read it:
Utility planners, regulators, analysts
Cite as:
National Laboratory of the Rockies (Ellie Estreich, Luke Lavin, Ilya Chernyakhovskiy; Grid Planning and Analysis Center). “Data Centers Gap Analysis.” 2026 (NLR/PR-6A40-97168). https://research-hub.nlr.gov/en/publications/data-centers-gap-analysis/
U.S. Department of Energy · December 20, 2024 · Web page
DOE's announcement of the 2024 LBNL report restates its headline numbers for 2014, 2023 and 2028. It then lists DOE's strategies for meeting data center demand, starting with data center flexibility through onsite generation and storage. It frames data center growth alongside manufacturing and electrification as drivers of rising U.S. demand.
“The report estimates that data center load growth has tripled over the past decade and is projected to double or triple by 2028.”
“The report finds that data centers consumed about 4.4% of total U.S. electricity in 2023 and are expected to consume approximately 6.7 to 12% of total U.S. electricity by 2028.”
“Enabling data center flexibility through onsite power generation and storage solutions, including the Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization Office’s Onsite Energy Program and new Industrial Energy Storage Systems”
Who should read it:
Elected officials and communications staff who want DOE's plain-language summary
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy. “DOE Releases New Report Evaluating Increase in Electricity Demand from Data Centers.” December 20, 2024. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-releases-new-report-evaluating-increase-electricity-demand-data-centers
DOE's central data center page, organized under Ensuring Affordable Energy, Building More Power, Strengthening Grid Reliability, Delivering Benefits to American Communities, Technological Innovation, and Data and Transparency. It lays out the Ratepayer Protection Pledge terms, DOE loans and nuclear actions, the SPARK transmission program, backup-generation use in emergencies, and technical assistance for state energy offices, public utility commissions and local stakeholders. It closes by summarizing the LBNL 2025 Update.
“Pay for all new required power delivery infrastructure upgrades”
“DOE provides technical assistance, planning support, and analytical resources to state energy offices, public utility commissions, and local stakeholders to help communities with large energy projects and plan for future growth.”
“DOE is also working to leverage backup generation resources at data centers and other industrial sites to reduce blackout risks during emergencies.”
Who should read it:
Council members, city managers, economic development staff, local utility liaisons
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy. “Powering America's AI Future: Data Center Resource Hub.” undated. https://www.energy.gov/powering-americas-ai-future-data-center-resource-hub
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Policy · undated · Web page
An Office of Policy page collecting DOE tools and studies on load growth, with sections titled Understanding Electricity Demand Growth and Available Solutions, DOE Programs, and DOE Strategy on Electricity Demand Growth. It points to technical assistance for states and utilities, a resource adequacy study, and DOE's report on clean energy resources to meet data center demand.
“Rising electricity demand is mainly driven by data center expansion and the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) applications, domestic manufacturing growth, and electrification of different sectors.”
“Clean Energy Resources to Meet Data Center Electricity Demand provides additional context about data center load growth during the clean energy transition and lays out the broad portfolio of energy technologies and enabling solutions available today to meet rising demand.”
Who should read it:
Planning and sustainability staff looking for DOE technical assistance programs
Limitations:
The page states: "This hub will be expanded and further developed over time as new research and resources become available."
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Policy. “Electricity Demand Growth Resource Hub.” undated. https://www.energy.gov/policy/electricity-demand-growth-resource-hub
U.S. Energy Information Administration (Today in Energy, in-depth analysis) · March 12, 2026 · Web page
Built on the February 2026 Short-Term Energy Outlook, this analysis models faster-than-expected electricity demand growth from data centers while holding generating capacity fixed. It reviews national demand growth since 2020 and regional forecasts for ERCOT, PJM, MISO and SPP. It then looks at the effects on generation mix and wholesale prices, and explains how grid operators manage new large-load interconnections.
“Between 2020 and 2025, U.S. electricity demand, as measured by net energy for load, grew about 1.7% annually compared with 0.1% annual growth between 2005 and 2019.”
“We expect that the highest load growth will be in the ERCOT and PJM regions where forecast growth of annual electricity load averages 10% and 3%, respectively, between 2025 and 2027.”
“The results indicate that most regions can accommodate higher-than-expected electricity demand growth, but the modeled price effects in ERCOT highlight some of the challenges grid operators have in managing large increases of load in the near term.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, energy and sustainability staff, councils in ERCOT and PJM territory
Limitations:
"This analysis was completed in conjunction with the February Short-Term Energy Outlook (STEO). The results may differ slightly from the most recent forecasts published in the March STEO."
Cite as:
U.S. Energy Information Administration (Today in Energy, in-depth analysis). “Fossil generation could rise with faster-than-expected growth in data center power demand.” March 12, 2026. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=67344
U.S. Energy Information Administration · March 25, 2026 · Web page
Announces EIA's voluntary pilot field studies of data center energy use: web surveys in Texas and Washington state and in-person interviews in Northern Virginia and Washington, DC. It lists the topics the questionnaire covers. This matters to local officials because official, facility-level federal data on data center energy use is still being built.
“EIA identified 196 companies operating data centers across Texas, Washington state, and the Northern Virginia-DC region.”
“The questionnaire will cover energy sources, electricity consumption, site characteristics, server metrics, and cooling systems.”
Who should read it:
Analysts and planning staff who need to know what official data exists and what is coming
Limitations:
The pilots are described as voluntary.
Cite as:
U.S. Energy Information Administration. “EIA launches pilot survey on energy use at data centers.” March 25, 2026. https://www.eia.gov/pressroom/releases/press585.php
U.S. Energy Information Administration · date not printed on the page · Web page
EIA's long-term U.S. energy projections to 2050. The landing page gives section summaries including Electricity, which names data center server energy use as a major factor in electricity growth. Detailed tables and cases are reached from this page.
“After 15 years of nearly flat U.S. electricity consumption, demand has increased by 2.1% per year, on average, over the last five years.”
“We project electricity consumption will continue growing through 2050 at a rate of 0.9% to 1.6%, with data center server energy use a major factor.”
“Energy use in commercial buildings, home to data center activity, grows more rapidly than in the residential or industrial sectors in all modeled cases.”
Who should read it:
Analysts, long-range planners, utility regulators
Limitations:
Per EIA, AEO2026 in most cases considers laws and regulations only as of December 2025.
Cite as:
U.S. Energy Information Administration. “Annual Energy Outlook 2026.” date not printed on the page. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/
U.S. Department of Energy · October 23, 2025 · Web page
DOE's announcement that the Secretary of Energy directed FERC to start a rulemaking on interconnecting large loads, including data centers. It describes the proposal's main features: joint load-and-generation interconnection requests and shorter study times.
“Secretary Wright’s proposed rule allows customers to file joint, co-located load and generation interconnection requests.”
“It will also significantly reduce study times and grid upgrade costs, while reducing the time needed for additional generation and power to come online.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, city attorneys
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy. “Secretary Wright Acts to Unleash American Industry and Innovation with Newly Proposed Rules.” October 23, 2025. https://www.energy.gov/articles/secretary-wright-acts-unleash-american-industry-and-innovation-newly-proposed-rules
U.S. Department of Energy · July 7, 2025 · Web page
Summarizes DOE's resource adequacy report issued under the executive order on grid reliability. Highlights cover AI data center load growth, firm generation retirements, the projected rise in outage hours by 2030, and the gap between planned additions and firm capacity. It notes the method informs DOE's use of emergency authority under Federal Power Act section 202(c).
“Electricity demand from AI-driven data centers and advanced manufacturing is rising at a record pace.”
“Modeling shows annual outage hours could increase from single digits today to more than 800 hours per year.”
“The 104 GW of plant retirements are replaced by 209 GW of new generation by 2030; however, only 22 GW comes from firm baseload generation sources.”
“The methodology also informs the potential use of DOE’s emergency authority under Section 202(c) of the Federal Power Act.”
Who should read it:
Emergency managers, utility regulators, council members
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy. “Department of Energy Releases Report on Evaluating U.S. Grid Reliability and Security.” July 7, 2025. https://www.energy.gov/articles/department-energy-releases-report-evaluating-us-grid-reliability-and-security
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Electricity · undated page (describes actions from July 7, 2025 through April 2, 2026) · Web page
Describes DOE's effort to shorten timelines for large transmission and generation projects to serve AI and data center demand. It covers the fall 2025 request for information and the $1.9 billion SPARK funding opportunity for reconductoring and advanced transmission technologies. It is useful for utilities and local governments tracking federal grid money in their region.
“On September 18, 2025, the Office of Electricity launched the Speed to Power initiative: a federal effort to dramatically accelerate development timelines for large-scale transmission and generation projects.”
“On March 12, 2026, the DOE’s Office of Electricity announced an approximate $1.9 billion to catalyze electricity infrastructure investments through the Speed to Power through Accelerated Reconductoring and other Key Advanced Transmission Technology Upgrades (SPARK) funding opportunity.”
Who should read it:
Municipal utilities, grants staff, utility regulators
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Electricity. “Speed to Power Initiative.” undated page (describes actions from July 7, 2025 through April 2, 2026). https://www.energy.gov/speed-to-power
U.S. Department of Energy · July 24, 2025 · Web page
Announces four DOE sites (Idaho National Laboratory, Oak Ridge Reservation, Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant, Savannah River Site) selected to invite private partners for AI data center and energy projects. It ties the selection to the executive order on data center permitting. It commits to consultation with states, local governments and tribes.
“DOE looks forward to working with data center developers, energy companies, and the broader public in consultation with states, local governments, and federally recognized tribes that these projects will serve to further advance this important initiative.”
“DOE is also evaluating additional sites that could issue solicitations in the future.”
Who should read it:
Officials in counties near DOE sites; economic development staff
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy. “DOE Announces Site Selection for AI Data Center and Energy Infrastructure Development on Federal Lands.” July 24, 2025. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-site-selection-ai-data-center-and-energy-infrastructure-development-federal
The White House (published by the Office of the Federal Register via GovInfo, DCPD-202500788) · July 23, 2025 (published in the Federal Register July 28, 2025) · Web page
The full text of the executive order. It defines a 'Data Center Project' and 'Qualifying Project', and directs financial support for Qualifying Projects. It calls for NEPA categorical exclusions, FAST-41 treatment, and EPA streamlining under the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. It also directs reuse of brownfield and Superfund sites, programmatic Endangered Species Act consultation, a Corps nationwide permit review, and making federal land available.
“Data Center Project”
“For purposes of this order, Federal financial assistance representing less than 50 percent of total project costs shall be presumed not to constitute substantial Federal control and responsibility.”
“The Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency shall, consistent with the Environmental Protection Agency's statutory authorities, expeditiously identify Brownfield Sites and Superfund Sites for use by Qualifying Projects.”
Who should read it:
City attorneys, planning directors, environmental staff
Limitations:
The order states it "is not intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law or in equity by any party against the United States" (Sec. 10).
Cite as:
The White House (published by the Office of the Federal Register via GovInfo, DCPD-202500788). “Executive Order 14318: Accelerating Federal Permitting of Data Center Infrastructure.” July 23, 2025 (published in the Federal Register July 28, 2025). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/DCPD-202500788/html/DCPD-202500788.htm
U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) · July 26, 2024 · Web page with downloadable guide
A federal design guide covering IT systems and environmental conditions, air management, cooling and electrical systems, and heat recovery. It ends with metrics and benchmarking values for judging a data center's efficiency. Local officials can use it to ask applicants informed questions about efficiency commitments.
“IT system energy efficiency and environmental conditions are presented first because measures taken in these areas have a cascading effect of secondary energy savings for the mechanical and electrical systems.”
“This guide concludes with a section on metrics and benchmarking values by which a data center and its systems' energy efficiency can be evaluated.”
Who should read it:
Building officials, sustainability staff, planning staff reviewing site plans
Limitations:
"No design guide can offer 'the most energy-efficient' data center design, but these guidelines can provide efficiency benefits for a wide variety of data center scenarios." (the page puts the phrase in double quotes)
Cite as:
U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP). “Best Practices Guide for Energy-Efficient Data Center Design.” July 26, 2024. https://www.energy.gov/cmei/femp/articles/best-practices-guide-energy-efficient-data-center-design
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) · undated docket page (docket opened after the Secretary of Energy's October 23, 2025 direction) · Docket
FERC's public page for the large-load interconnection rulemaking that DOE initiated under section 403. It explains what an ANOPR is, lists who may be interested (including communities affected by data center development), and sets out the DOE principles FERC sought comment on: faster studies for flexible loads, who pays for grid upgrades, partial retirement of existing plants to serve co-located load, and transition rules. It explains how to file comments and how FERC's Office of Public Participation can help.
“Communities affected by data center or transmission development”
“Whether large loads and co-located facilities should pay the full cost of any grid upgrades needed for their interconnection, and whether those costs should be credited back over time, and if so, over what period.”
“An ANOPR is an early step in the rulemaking process that allows FERC to gather input before deciding whether to propose specific regulatory changes.”
“The Office of Public Participation (OPP) supports meaningful public engagement in FERC proceedings and can help you navigate FERC processes and filings.”
Who should read it:
City attorneys, utility regulators, council members who want to file comments, community engagement staff
Cite as:
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). “Interconnection of Large Loads to the Interstate Transmission System (Docket No. RM26-4-000).” undated docket page (docket opened after the Secretary of Energy's October 23, 2025 direction). https://www.ferc.gov/rm26-4
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) · June 18, 2026 · Web page
FERC issued show cause orders under Federal Power Act section 206 to all six FERC-jurisdictional grid operators (PJM, MISO, SPP, CAISO, ISO-NE, NYISO) on large-load tariffs. The release lists five reform categories, including cost-shifting protections, co-location and behind-the-meter generation, and service for flexible loads. It sets 60-day and 30-day deadlines and places the action in context of the December 2025 PJM co-location order and SPP's High Impact Large Load initiative.
“Preventing cost shifting and requiring transparency into transmission costs”
“Under the orders, each RTO/ISO, and its transmission owners have 60 days to either justify why their current tariffs remain just and reasonable without provisions tailored to large loads, or to file tariff changes that address the issues the Commission identified.”
“Additionally, within 30 days, each grid operator and its transmission owners must submit a detailed informational report describing how the grid operator intends to ensure that adequate generation will be available to serve existing and new large loads.”
“Commission staff reviewed more than 3,500 pages of public comments submitted in the large load interconnection docket and engaged extensively with stakeholders and federal partners, in developing today's action.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, city attorneys, council members in RTO/ISO regions, economic development staff
Cite as:
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). “FERC Launches Aggressive Targeted Action to Speed Large Load Integration.” June 18, 2026. https://www.ferc.gov/news-events/news/ferc-launches-aggressive-targeted-action-speed-large-load-integration
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) · December 18, 2025 · Web page
Explains FERC's order in the PJM co-location proceeding. FERC found PJM's tariff unjust and unreasonable for lack of clear rules on data centers and other loads co-located with power plants, and directed PJM to offer defined transmission service options. It also ordered a report on faster generation additions, the reliability backstop, and load forecasting and demand flexibility. It traces the case back to FERC's February 2025 show cause order.
“Today, FERC directed grid operator PJM to establish transparent rules to facilitate service of AI-driven data centers and other large loads co-located with generating facilities.”
“These rules will safeguard grid reliability and protect consumers in the mid-Atlantic territory, which serves over 67 million Americans in 13 states and D.C.”
“In the order, the Commission finds PJM’s tariff unjust and unreasonable due to a lack of clarity and consistency in the rates, terms, and conditions that apply to interconnection customers serving co-located load and eligible customers taking transmission service on behalf of co-located loads.”
“Enhanced load forecasting and demand flexibility measures to identify new capacity needed for system reliability.”
Who should read it:
Officials in PJM states; utility regulators; anyone evaluating a data center paired with an existing or new power plant
Cite as:
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). “FERC Directs Nation's Largest Grid Operator to Create New Rules to Embrace Innovation and Protect Consumers.” December 18, 2025. https://www.ferc.gov/news-events/news/ferc-directs-nations-largest-grid-operator-create-new-rules-embrace-innovation-and
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Office of External Affairs · July 16, 2026 (meeting date) · Web page
Item E-1 summarizes FERC's order directing NERC to write mandatory reliability standards for 'computational loads' (data centers) connecting to the bulk power system. It also directs NERC to revise its Rules of Procedure, including registration criteria for computational load entities. This is the first time data centers are being brought into the mandatory reliability standards framework.
“The order directs North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), pursuant to section 215(d)(5) of the Federal Power Act, to develop and submit new or modified Reliability Standards addressing the reliability risks associated with the integration of computational loads into the Bulk-Power System.”
“Both The Reliability Standards and Rules of Procedure revisions are due by December 31, 2026.”
Who should read it:
Utility regulators, municipal utility staff, officials in communities hosting large data centers
Limitations:
"The summaries are produced by FERC’s Office of External Affairs and are intended to provide only a general synopsis of the orders. These summaries are not intended as a substitute for the Commission’s official orders."
Cite as:
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Office of External Affairs. “Summaries: July 2026 Commission Meeting (Item E-1, Computational Load Integration, Docket No. RD26-7-000).” July 16, 2026 (meeting date). https://www.ferc.gov/news-events/news/summaries-july-2026-commission-meeting
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) · undated page; resources listed with modified dates through 08/26/2026 · Web page
NERC's hub for its work on data centers and other emerging large loads. It gives background on the Large Loads Task Force (formed August 2024, now the Large Loads Working Group), quarterly action plan updates, and a resource list. The list includes a Large Loads FAQ, a Primer for Computational Loads, a Checklist for Computational Load Entities, a Characteristics and Risks white paper, a Gap Assessment, incident reviews of voltage-sensitive load reductions, and the July 16 FERC order. It also lists open comment periods and workshops.
“In addition to the rapid growth of emerging large loads, their electrical behavior can be distinctive and often less predictable than that of conventional loads.”
“These unique characteristics pose risks to the BPS that need to be understood and managed.”
“NERC’s Reliability and Security Technical Committee recently upgraded the Large Loads Task Force to a working group, now called the Large Loads Working Group (LLWG).”
Who should read it:
Municipal utility engineers, utility regulators, emergency management staff
Cite as:
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC). “Large Loads Action Plan.” undated page; resources listed with modified dates through 08/26/2026. https://www.nerc.com/initiatives/large-loads-action-plan
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) · 2025 assessment; report file listed as modified 02/24/2026 · Web page
NERC's annual 10-year outlook of supply, demand and transmission adequacy across the U.S. and Canada. The 2025 edition's summary on this page says data centers account for most of the projected jump in summer peak demand. It flags concern that new resources are not keeping pace. The page also offers the infographic and a MISO sensitivity case.
“Summer peak demand is forecast to grow by 224 GW, a more than 69% increase over the 2024 LTRA forecast with new data centers for artificial intelligence and the digital economy accounting for most of the projected increase.”
“Winter demand growth continues to outpace summer demand growth with 246 GW of growth forecast over the next 10 years, reflecting the evolution of electricity usage.”
“Uncertainty and lag in the pace of new resource additions are driving heightened concerns that industry will not be able to keep up with rapidly increasing demand.”
Who should read it:
Council members, emergency managers, utility regulators, municipal utilities
Cite as:
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC). “Long-Term Reliability Assessments (2025 Long-Term Reliability Assessment).” 2025 assessment; report file listed as modified 02/24/2026. https://www.nerc.com/our-work/assessments/long-term-reliability-assessments
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress) · 05/12/2026 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov) · Report
A nonpartisan FAQ by Lawson, Offutt, Ortiz and Zhu. Questions cover what a data center is and how federal law defines one, energy requirements and equipment, cooling methods and water concerns, and whether federal rules cover data center energy use. It also covers electricity price effects and affordability options, available energy-use reports, and federal information-collection procedures.
“U.S. data center annual energy use in 2023 (not accounting for cryptocurrency) was approximately 176 terawatt-hours (TWh), approximately 4.4% of U.S. annual electricity consumption that year”
“Utility regulators at the state or local level approve rates that reflect a utility's cost for these components.”
Who should read it:
Council members, city managers, communications staff; a strong first read
Cite as:
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress). “Data Centers and Their Energy Consumption: Frequently Asked Questions (R48646).” 05/12/2026 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R48646
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress) · 09/01/2026 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov) · Report
A September 2026 FAQ by Lawson, Offutt and Parfomak. Questions cover how data centers get power, grid regulation, projected demand, preferred generation types, federal permitting, interconnection, flexibility, grid benefits and electricity prices. It also asks where growth is happening and whether data centers can cause blackouts, and reviews federal, state and congressional actions. Figures show RTO/ISO regions and standalone data center electricity use by state in 2024 and projected for 2030. It ends with a list of related CRS reports.
“Data centers do not appear to have caused blackouts to date.”
“Estimates of existing data center power demand vary, in part because comprehensive consumption statistics are not available.”
“To date, data centers have generally secured power from their local electric utilities, utilizing existing transmission and distribution infrastructure (i.e., the grid).”
Who should read it:
Council members, utility regulators, state and local government affairs staff
Limitations:
"This report is intended as an introduction to data center electricity issues and does not provide in-depth coverage of all data-center- and electric-grid-related issues."
Cite as:
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress). “Data Centers and the Electricity Grid: Frequently Asked Questions (R49326).” 09/01/2026 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R49326
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress) · 07/31/2026 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov) · Report
A water-focused FAQ by Carter, Clark, Folger, Gatz, Humphreys, Normand and Stern. It covers how data centers use water and options to reduce it, water sources, what drives demand, and whether operators pay public water systems and at what price. It explains why local water authorities and states decide availability and whether federal reservoirs supply data centers. It also covers available water-use data and the federal role in assessing effects on water resources.
“Currently, most operators of data centers acquire water from municipal water systems, commonly referred to as public water systems.”
“Congress has generally deferred to the states' primacy in intrastate water allocation.”
“Such agreements may include provisions that limit the disclosure of this information.”
“Different water systems use different rate structures, and the water rates charged by public water systems are not generally publicly available.”
Who should read it:
Water utility directors, city attorneys, council members approving water service agreements
Cite as:
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress). “Data Centers and Water: Frequently Asked Questions (R49057).” 07/31/2026 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R49057
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress) · 12/12/2025 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov) · Report
Explains which federal permits and reviews may apply to energy infrastructure serving data centers: grid connections, on-site and backup generation, gas pipelines, carbon sequestration, and off-site power plants. It names FERC, NRC and the Army Corps of Engineers roles. It also distinguishes those federal roles from the state and local siting jurisdiction that governs the data center building itself.
“Notwithstanding their energy intensity, individual data centers have a discrete footprint, typically falling under state and local siting jurisdiction.”
“Some federal approvals may still apply.”
“Specific types of electricity generation may require permits directly from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), or the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps).”
Who should read it:
City attorneys, planning directors, permitting staff
Cite as:
Congressional Research Service (Library of Congress). “Data Center Energy Infrastructure: Federal Permit Requirements (R48762).” 12/12/2025 (Publication Date shown on Congress.gov). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R48762
U.S. Government Accountability Office · Published: Apr 22, 2025. Publicly Released: Apr 22, 2025. · Report
A GAO technology assessment of generative AI's environmental effects (energy, water, emissions) and human effects, with policy options. On environment, it finds companies generally do not report energy and water details and water estimates are limited. It cites the IEA for U.S. data center electricity shares. It is the main GAO product on this topic; no separate GAO report dedicated to data center energy or water was found.
“Generative AI uses significant energy and water resources, but companies are generally not reporting details of these uses.”
“Estimates of water consumption by generative AI are limited.”
“According to the International Energy Agency, U.S. data center electricity consumption was approximately 4 percent of U.S. electricity demand in 2022 and could be 6 percent of demand in 2026.”
Who should read it:
Council members and staff asking what is and is not publicly disclosed about data center resource use
Limitations:
"definitive statements about these risks and challenges are difficult to make because generative AI is rapidly evolving, and private developers do not disclose some key technical information."
Cite as:
U.S. Government Accountability Office. “Artificial Intelligence: Generative AI's Environmental and Human Effects (GAO-25-107172).” Published: Apr 22, 2025. Publicly Released: Apr 22, 2025.. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-25-107172
U.S. Geological Survey, with the Bureau of Land Management · First posted July 22, 2026 · Report
A USGS science synthesis of 71 publications plus a spatial analysis of Alaska and 11 western states. It covers data center types, energy supply and transmission, cooling and water use (direct and indirect, including 'blowdown' wastewater), extreme weather, and permitting timelines. It maps 771 AI data centers and more than 3,300 power plants against BLM lands, with a plain language summary and glossary.
“Permitting and regulatory reviews can take 18–24 months, and coordination across other energy development projects can cause delays.”
“Developers need to consider current and potential future water supplies before building new centers.”
“This water has to be treated by local wastewater facilities, adding additional strain to municipal wastewater systems.”
“About 38 percent of BLM lands in the study area were within 10 miles of high-voltage transmission infrastructure.”
Who should read it:
Water and wastewater utility staff, western county officials, planning staff
Limitations:
"This report does not provide a comprehensive ecological, regulatory, land suitability, or permitting analysis." Also: "some of the statistics used in this report may be outdated and fail to reflect current consumption levels."
Cite as:
U.S. Geological Survey, with the Bureau of Land Management. “Colocating Artificial Intelligence Data Centers with Energy Infrastructure on Federal Public Lands: A Science Synthesis and Spatial Analysis to Inform Decision Making (SIR 2026-5035).” First posted July 22, 2026. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/sir20265035/full
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency · Last updated on September 14, 2026 · Web page
EPA's hub on air rules for data center power: turbine and engine standards (NSPS, NESHAP), nonroad engines, New Source Review and Title V guidance, and air quality modeling. It explains that state and local air agencies issue most data center air permits. A 2026 alert explains how backup generator hours run under DOE 202(c) emergency orders are treated. It lists EPA news actions and a data centers team contact.
“State and local air agencies issue most air permits for data centers, under programs approved as meeting minimum requirements established by the CAA and EPA regulations.”
“Stationary combustion turbines and stationary engines – common sources of primary and backup power for data centers – are subject to various new source performance standards (NSPS) for certain air emissions and national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP).”
“the EPA considers operation under such emergency orders as operation in an emergency situation, so there is no limit on use of the emergency stationary engines during the period of the emergency.”
Who should read it:
Environmental and air quality staff, planning staff, residents' liaisons on generator noise and emissions
Cite as:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Clean Air Act Resources for Data Centers.” Last updated on September 14, 2026. https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/clean-air-act-resources-data-centers
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency · May 1, 2025 · Web page
Announces EPA's interpretation of the engine (RICE NESHAP) rules allowing certain backup engines to run a limited number of non-emergency hours for grid support under a financial arrangement. It responds to a Duke Energy request about its PowerShare Mandatory 50 program. This explains why data center diesel generators may run outside true emergencies.
“EPA has determined that certain engines can operate for up to 50 hours per year in non-emergency conditions to supply power for our nation’s grid and maintain reliable service as part of a financial arrangement with another entity.”
“On January 15, 2025, Duke Energy submitted a request to the agency for interpretation that their PowerShare Mandatory 50 demand program meets the criteria for operation of stationary emergency engines under existing EPA regulations, and EPA’s regulatory interpretation confirmed that Duke Energy’s program meets the criteria.”
Who should read it:
Air quality staff, planners writing generator conditions, residents' liaisons
Cite as:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “EPA Issues Clarification to Help Power Data Centers, Ensure U.S. Is the AI Capital of the World.” May 1, 2025. https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-issues-clarification-help-power-data-centers-ensure-us-ai-capital-world
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) · Last updated: February 25, 2026 · Report
EPRI's 2026 update gives Low, Medium and High scenarios of state-level data center capacity, peak load and annual energy through 2030, built from project development data. It compares results with LBNL's shipment-based estimates and models generation build-outs under current policy versus 24/7 carbon-free procurement. It recommends better load forecasting, fuller use of existing grid assets, and collaboration with communities. It names states where data centers could exceed 20% of electricity by 2030.
“EPRI projects data centers to consume 9% to 17% of U.S. electricity by 2030, up from 4% to 5% today.”
“Today, Virginia is the only state where data centers consume over 20% of electricity; this share could increase to 39% to 57% by 2030.”
“The analysis shows that announced nominal MW for data center projects should be treated as a pipeline indicator rather than a near-term peak forecast, as non-IT loads, ramp-up, load shapes, onsite energy assets, and load flexibility materially impact peak effects.”
Who should read it:
Council members, planners, utility regulators, economic development staff comparing announced megawatts with real load
Limitations:
"Note that a shortcoming of the estimation approach used in this paper is that it relies heavily on public announcements of projects." Also: "These scenarios were designed to reflect uncertainty about the realization of planned projects and are not necessarily equally likely."
Cite as:
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). “Powering Intelligence 2026: Updated Scenarios of U.S. Data Center Electricity Use and Power Strategies (Executive Summary).” Last updated: February 25, 2026. https://powering-intelligence.epri.com/executive-summary.html
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) · undated (part of Powering Intelligence 2026) · Dataset
An interactive dashboard of estimated historical and projected data center nominal capacity, peak load and annual energy for each state through 2030 under EPRI's three scenarios. Users can select a state, filter by scenario and year, and download data. It gives local officials a sourced state-level number to use instead of national averages.
“This dashboard shows estimated historical and projected energy and capacity metrics for data centers in each U.S. state through 2030.”
“Data can be downloaded for the selected state and all states.”
Who should read it:
Planning analysts, economic development staff, utility regulators
Limitations:
Scenario estimates, per EPRI's executive summary, rely heavily on public project announcements.
Cite as:
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). “State-Level Data Center Power Data (Powering Intelligence 2026 Data Dashboard).” undated (part of Powering Intelligence 2026). https://powering-intelligence.epri.com/dashboard/
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) · date not printed on the page · Report
The product summary frames data centers as one of the fastest-growing industries and names generative AI adoption as the key uncertainty for U.S. load growth. Its projections are superseded by Powering Intelligence 2026.
“In the United States, the national outlook could resemble the global outlook, but is highly uncertain.”
“One key uncertainty that could change the trajectory of data center load growth is the use of generative AI models.”
Who should read it:
Analysts tracing how projections have changed
Cite as:
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). “Powering Intelligence: Analyzing Artificial Intelligence and Data Center Energy Consumption.” date not printed on the page. https://esca.epri.com/products/3002028905/
International Energy Agency (IEA) · date not printed on the page · Report
The IEA special report on AI and energy, based on a new global model and dataset. The executive summary covers global and U.S. data center electricity use, projections to 2030 and 2035 with sensitivity cases, and which power sources meet demand. It also covers grid integration risks and flexibility options, AI uses in the energy sector, supply chain and security issues, and emissions.
“Data centre electricity consumption is set to more than double to around 945 TWh by 2030.”
“In the United States, data centres account for nearly half of electricity demand growth between now and 2030.”
“Nearly half of data centre capacity in the United States is in five regional clusters.”
“Electricity grids are already under strain in many places: we estimate that unless these risks are addressed, around 20% of planned data centre projects could be at risk of delays.”
Who should read it:
All audiences needing the international context; council members and planners
Limitations:
The report's section heading states: "There are large uncertainties in the outlook for AI-related electricity demand"; it notes "By 2035, the range of data centre electricity demand across our cases spans from 700 to 1 700 TWh."
Cite as:
International Energy Agency (IEA). “Energy and AI.” date not printed on the page. https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-and-ai/executive-summary
International Energy Agency (IEA) · Last updated 16 Jun 2025 · Dataset
IEA's data platform companion to the Energy and AI report. It has 'Energy for AI' and 'AI for energy' sections and is meant to be updated regularly with data from IEA partners.
“The IEA’s Energy and AI Observatory provides up-to-date data and analysis on the growing links between the energy sector and artificial intelligence (AI).”
Who should read it:
Analysts and staff who need charts and data for presentations
Cite as:
International Energy Agency (IEA). “Energy and AI Observatory.” Last updated 16 Jun 2025. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/energy-and-ai-observatory
About this library
Why we put this together.
When a data center shows up on an agenda, the questions come fast, and the answers are scattered across federal reports, utility filings, state bills and local ordinances. We wanted one place a council member, a planner or a neighbor could start. We read what we list, and if we only got through part of a long report, we tell you which part. If something sat behind a paywall or the link was dead, we left it out.
Each entry includes
Who published it, when, and a link.
A short description of what it covers.
Quotes taken directly from the source.
Who should read it.
Its limits, including who paid for it.
A citation for your staff report.
We update the library as new information becomes available. No one paid to be listed, and government, industry and advocacy sources sit side by side, each one labeled.
Is a data center coming to your community?
The library is free. If you want an independent read before the first hearing, we can help.